Eastern instrumental profane music
Greek Byzantine, Ottoman and Arab profane musical samples.
Compositions of 13th to 18th centuries

“Thyrathen”, the secular art music in the Greek world

The term thyrathen music denotes secular music performed outside of church, discerned in artistic, eponymous compositions and in the anonymous folk tradition. The selection on this album is concerned with the artistic secular music which evolved form the post-Byzantine era up to the Greek War of Independence of 1821. Our reference to this artistic music begins with the compositions which belong to the form Kratemata (tenors), influenced by the instrumental or national music of the era of the Paleologos Dynasty.
In «Historical Treatise on the Theater and Music of the Byzantines», K.N. Sathas refers to the revival of music under the reign of the Paleologos dynasty.

The «On the entrance» is a composition possibly played during the entrance of an emperor, senior cleric or other important personage, to the church.
The presence of orchestras an official events is referred to in many texts of the period. During the Paleologus reign, pipers accompanied the Patriarch Isaiah, and a ruling by Andronicus II allowed the people to chant celebratory songs during dances and to dance in the churches in front of the icon of the Virgin.

Sathas also wrote:
«... it is worth noting that while the Latin Church uses the words cantus, cantare, cantor irrespective of whether the song is religious or secular, the Greek Church carefully distinguishes between secular and religious songs. The people call secular songs «tragoudi» (n) «tragoudo» (vb) «tragoudistis» (singer), and respectively for religious songs the words «psalmodia», «psallo», «psaltis».

The "Kratemata" - tenors
The kratemata of this selection are melodies with meaningless syllables (terirem, terere, tototo etc), dating from the 18th century, and with a more ecclesiastical character than the older ones. "The tendency for the composition of kratemata appears quite commonly in the 17th and 18th centuries, especially the second half, when various kratemata are composed as complements of the older kalophonic heirmos. From the point of view of structure and essence, the kratemata comprise very interesting compositions. In these, musical inspiration, freed from the strict limits of a prescribed text, often appears extremely rich and original. Due to their use and form, they remain at the same time among the compositions more open to outside influences.
Generally, the kratemata together with the kalophonic heirmos express more than anything else the latent tendencies and the dominant character of the ecclesiastic melody of the era of Turkish rule. That is, the intensity of feeling and the popularisation of the great musical tradition of Byzantium".
(M. Hatziyiakoumi, "Manuscripts of ecclesiastical music, 1453 - 1820")
The Greek byzantine music art
Notes and scales
There are seven notes in Byzantine music: Pa, Vou, Ga, Di, Ke, Zo and Ni. Each of these is expressed as one level on a scale. Byzantine music uses three such scales of which the first, the lowest is known as the Ypati the second Mesi and the third and highest as Niti or Oxeia.
They are used in the following three ways: a) continually ascending or descending b) non-linear descending or ascending and c) alternating between the two (a and b). When a note is divided into two unequal parts and one of these two intervals is used, that interval is called a semitone,
Musical notation
In order to record and interpret the quantity of the melody in Byzantine music, , a particular system of 10 characters was devised (Ison, Oligon, Petasthe, Kentemata, Kentema, Hypsile, Apostrophos, Elaphron, Hyporrhoe, Khamile). Of those, six are ascending and four descending.
They are divided into three classes, Soma (Body), Pneuma (Spirit) and Neutral. Other names of characters are music notes.
Although expressing the ascension and descent of notes, they are not separate but are defined when preceded by another note as a base. If htere is no base, they cannot express a musical concept. When they are interlined they express all the musical notes on all scales.

Musical scales
The scale in Byzantine music refers to the division of the tetrachord order of notes according to the Diatessera system (i.e.in four parts). There are three scales: diatonic, chromatic and enharmonic.
Diatonic scale
The diatonic scale consists of two tetrachords divided into equal parts, according to the correspondingly equal intervals of the notes within them.
Chromatic scale
Chromatic music is what colours the quality produced by the notes in the diatonic scale and provide quality of a different style. That can be achieved by the flat and sharp notes. Thus the chromatic scale is that which includes semitones in either flat or sharp or both.
Enharmonic scale
Enharmonic scales are those which have quarter of the major note. That interval is called enharmonic flat or sharp.

Ottoman music

Muisical Forms in the Ottoman Music
Various forms of composition in the Ottoman music can be classified as follows:
a) According to the type of the music (religious music and secular music)
b) According to the means of performance (vocal music, instrumental music)
c) According to the field of use (military music, religious music, classical music, folk music, entertainment music)
d) According to the space of performance (military music, palace music, mosque music, tekke music, urban music, rural music)
e) According to the style of performance (rythmic, performance, i.e. with usul; and non-rythmic performance, i.e. without usul).

Forms of Secular Music
A. Military music
B. Classical music
l. Vocal Music
a) Non-rhythmic Forms
Gazel: Performed by a soloist, these improvised works are composed on certain love poetry called with the same name. They require a good and colorful voice, as well as good knowledge of makam and poetry, and a skill of composition. The difficulty of this form coupled with the lack of its education led to diminishing number of gazelhans (reciters of gazels). The same form is called leyâli or mauel in Arabic, and âvâz in Persian.
b.I) Large-scale forms with rhythm:
Kâr: These pieces are performed after the peşrev in the classical fasıl. Their lyrics are in Persian, and rarely in Turkish. They may be composed in large or small usuls, sometimes with alteration of rhythms, conventionally starting with a long terennüm.
Beste: They are performed after kâr in the classical fasıl –if there is any, if not, after peşrev, and they are composed by using large usuls.
Ağırsemâî: These pieces are performed after beste in the classical fasıl. Composed in usuls of Aksak Semâî (10/8), Ağır Aksak Semâî (10/4) or Ağır Sengin Semâî (6/2), these works are composed by adding terennüm after each line of a quadrain.
Kâr-ı Nâtık: Literally, “talking piece”, these pieces are composed on lyrics that are especially written for this form. The lyrics contain names of the makams and usuls. The composer needs to show that makam and usul wherever and whenever the name of it passes in the lyrics. These pieces are composed primarily for the purpose of demonstrating a composer’s mastership and for teaching the makams. There have been kar-ı natıks composed by using as many makams as 15 to 119.
b.2) Small forms with rhythm:
Yürüksemâî: These works are performed following the Ağırsemâî in the classical fasıl, and after the şarkıs in the popular fasıls. They are composed by using Yürüksemâî (6/4) usul and on a stanza of a gazel adding terennüms after each line.
Şarkı: They are performed between Ağırsemâî and Yürüksemâî in popular fasıls. Lyrics are on aruz meter using usuls of Aksak (9/8) and Curcuna (10/16). They do not have any terennüms.
2. Instrumental Music
a) Non-rhythmic:
Taksim: The improvised piece composed by an instrumentalist on a certain makam (Arabs use the plural of the term, taqaasim). The melodical structure and the rhythm as well as the duration depend on the improvizer. It requires fine playing skills and makam knowledge as well as composition and timing skills. This makes it the most difficult form of instrumental music. There are introductory taksims (giriş or baş taksimi) before the performance of a concert, fasıl, or Mevlevî âyin; transitional taksims (geçiş taksimi) when the makam is going to change, so that listeners and performers must be prepared for the new musical climate: intermission taksims (ara taksimi) which are performed to enable the performers and listeners to relax when many pieces in the same makam have been performed, especially during fasıls.
b.l) Large-scale forms with rhythm:
Peşrev: These pieces are performed in fasıls after the baş taksîmi. They are composed in large usuls and have no alteration of usul. They are composed in four parts each called a hâne, and a mülazime or teslim which corresponds the nakarat, i.e. the recurring theme in vocal music. In its melodical structure, the first hâne and teslim are composed on the makam that peşrev is associated with, second and fourth hanes on the neighboring makams, and the third hane with transitions to makams in high pitches.
Fihrist Peşrev: This is a type of instrumental, didactical kar-ı natık which describes various makams in a certain order.
b.2) Small forms with rhythm:
Medhal: A type of peşrev that had been first used by the composer and tanbur-player, Refik Fersan. It differs from peşrev because it is composed in small usuls. It also has four hanes but is shorter than peşrev, permitting new searches in its melodical and rhythmic structure. It may be composed without any usul in its karabatak version.
Sazsemâîsi: These instrumental pieces are performed after Yürüksemâî in the fasıl. They have, like peşrev, 4 (and rarely 6) hânes and a mülazime. They differ from peşrev in that their first 3 hânes must be composed using the usul of Aksaksemâî (10/8), and the fourth hane is in various small usuls (mostly Yürüksemâî, 6/4 or 6/8).
There are also other types of instrumental pieces in the Ottoman music, like sirto or longa which are composed for dancing, and aranağme which are the small pieces specially composed for songs in the form of şark

Arab music

The Maqam
In Arabic music, a maqam (plural maqamat) is a set of notes with traditions that define relationships between them, habitual patterns, and their melodic development. Maqamat are best defined and understood in the context of the rich Arabic music repertoire. The nearest equivalent in Western classical music would be a mode (e.g. Major, Minor, etc.)
The Arabic scales which maqamat are built from are not even-tempered, unlike the chromatic scale used in Western classical music. Instead, 5th notes are tuned based on the 3rd harmonic. The tuning of the remaining notes entirely depends on the maqam. The reasons for this tuning are probably historically based on string instruments like the oud. A side effect of not having even-tempered tuning is that the same note (by name) may have a slightly different pitch depending on which maqam it is played in.

Arabic music forms
The Samai (plural Sama'iyyat)
The Samai is a composed genre comprised of four sections (khana, plural khanat), each followed by the refrain (taslim).
The samai composition demonstrates the 10/8 rhythmic mode (called samai thaqil) followed throughout the taslim and the first 3 khanat. The 4th khana, which precedes the last statement of the refrain, is typically composed in a 3/4 or 6/4 rhythm, called Samai Darij. Some contemporary composers display a 5/8, 7/8 or 9/8 rhythm in the 4th khana.
The first three khanat of the Samai consist of 4 to 6 measures. The last (4th) khana varies from 6 to 24 measures.
Generally the first khana in the Samai displays the selected maqam in a stepwise motion. It is usually played in the lower tetrachord (jins) of the maqam. The second khana shows a modulation to a related maqam. In the third khana the melodic range expands and reaches the higher tetrachord of the maqam.

The Tahmila (plural Tahamil)
A dance form performed by the takht, which generally follows a simple 2/4 or 4/4 rhythm in moderate tempo.
The tahmila is a 2 part form: the first form is similar to the doulab. It consists of short motives which expose the maqam. The second part incorporates short improvisational solos which alternate with precomposed ensemble refrains in a call and response fashion. Generally the call is an improvised section which is played by the soloist and consists of 2 measures. It is followed by a response of equal length that is played by the ensemble.
With this structure the soloist plays an improvised variation in each call after the takht responds with the same musical phrase played after the first call. These variations could go through modulations related to the given maqam of the Tahmila, or modulations to related maqamat using the different degrees of the original maqam as new tonalities.
The tahmila ends with a repetition of the first opening part.
The Muwashah (plural Muwashahat)
The Muwashah is a strophic song that originated in Al-Andalus (the medieval Iberian peninsula - present day Spain and Portugal). The melody and the structure of the muwashah vary in sophistication. It is performed by a chorus alternating with a soloist who is accompanied by a takht. The muwashah is often composed using a complex rhythmic mode, or iqaa. The lyrics in a muwashah are written in classical Arabic (fus'ha) as opposed to colloquial or regional Arabic ('ammiyyah), and often deal with the subject of love (unrequited love), or wine used as a metaphor for religious intoxication (common in Sufism).
The Mawwal (plural Mawawil)
The Mawwal is a non-metric vocal improvisation on a colloquial poetry text of 4 to 7 lines. It can be sung with an instrumental accompaniment (usually a qanun or oud) or without, and is used as a means to demonstrate the singer's virtuosity. The singer has complete freedom to modulate to different maqamat. During a mawwal the accompanying musicians follow the singer's lead, and summarize each phrase after the singer has performed it (called tarjama, literally translation). The mawwal is often preceded by a doulab or a short taqsim to introduce the maqam.
The Qadd (plural Qudud)
The Qadd is a popular song genre that originated in the city of Aleppo, Syria. Qudud are also called Qudud Halabiyyah (from Aleppo). The Qadd is light in character, makes use of refrains, and is simple in structure and melody. Although the text in the qudud deals mostly with love, they were originally composed as religious songs.
The Wasla (plural Waslat)
The Wasla (literally "extension") is a multisectional form consisting of several related instrumental and vocal compositions. the wasla ghina'iyyah (vocal suite) could include a combination of any of the above genres. All songs or tunes in the wasla, however, should be in the same maqam.
The Bashraf (plural Basharef)
A composed genre comprised of 4 sections (khana, plural khanat), each followed by a refrain (taslim). The name comes from Persian peshrev, which means "that which precedes", because a Bashraf is usually played as an opening composition in a suite (or Fasl in Turkish).
Throughout the composition, the Bashraf follows one rhythmic mode, such as: Dawr al kabir (28/4), Shanbar (24/4), Al-Fakhitah (20/4), Mukhammas (16/4) and darij 93/4).
Generally the 4 khanat and the taslim of a Bashraf consist of 2-3 measures (cycles). the taslim can also consist of one cycle.
The first khana and the taslim display the selected maqam in a stepwise motion. A modulation to a related maqam occurs in the second khana. In the third, the melodic range expands and reaches the higher diwan of the maqam. generally the fourth khana displays the lower diwan of the selected maqam, as a sort of relief.
The Longa (plural Longas)
A lively dance form usually in simple 2/4 meter (called fox). The Longa is a Turkish / Eastern European style that made it into Arabic music. It consists of two to four couplets (khanat) which follow a rondo like-like format with a recurring passage or refrain (taslim). Generally each khana and taslim consists of 8-16 measures, mainly in 2/4, except for the last which occasionally follows the 3/4 Samai Darij meter. Very common maqams for longas are Nahawand, Nikriz, Hijaz-kar and its transpositions.
The Maqtou'a Mousiqiyya
This is an instrumental composition performed by an ensemble large than the traditional takht. In general it incorporates melodic themes and rhythmic patterns found in rural vocal and instrumental folk and dance music. Those themes are developed into new diverse musical sections, with or without repeated refrain.
Orchestration: first, in the sense of melodic distribution between a solo instrument and orchestra. Second in the sense of rhythmic counterpointal figures using heterophony at times; change of rhythm with each new melodic section; melodic complexity in the musical phrases (length, accidentals, leaps, modulation).
Contrary to the Saltanah (reaching musical ecstasy through individual virtuosity) element found in traditional instrumental forms, the Maqtou'a is expressional (ta'biriyyah).
The Qasida (plural Qasa'id)
The Qasida (literally a classical Arabic poem) is a song whose text is written in classical Arabic (fus'ha). It is performed by a solo vocalist accompanied by a takht. The qasida is composed to a simple rhythmic mode, or iqaa, usually wahdah. The subject of the lyrics is most often love, but could also be patriotism, death, or other themes.
The Dawr (plural Adwar)
The Dawr is a vocal genre sung in colloquial or regional Arabic ('ammiyyah), and was developed in 19th century Egypt. It includes 2 sections, madh'hab (chorus, or refrain) and ghusn (branch, or verse), the latter being characterized by choral responses to the soloist's ornamented improvisation on the syllable "ah". Only simple rhythmic modes are used in the dawr. the dawr usually starts with a doulab.
The Taqsim (plural Taqasim)
The Taqsim is an instrumental improvisation, which could be metric or non-metric. The taqsim is usually performed solo, but could also be accompanied by a percussionist or an instrumentalist playing only a drone. the taqsim is an impromptu musical composition where the soloist extemporized a piece using the maqam as a vehicle while abiding by a certain set of rules particular to that maqam. A taqsim usually includes a number of modulations to other related maqamat.
The Doulab (plural Dawalib)
The doulab (literally "wheel") An introductory short instrumental composition. The doulab sets the mood of a maqam, and is intended to reveal its special character such as its intervallic structure and the emotions.